The National Power In International Relations Politics Essay

The National Power In International Relations Politics Essay Power in international relations is defined in several different ways. Political scientists, historians, and practitioners of international relations (diplomats) have used the following concepts of political power: Power as a goal of states or leaders. Power as a measure of influence or control over outcomes, events, actors and issues. Power as reflecting victory in conflict and the attainment of security Power as control over resources and capabilities. Modern discourse generally speaks in terms of state power, indicating both economic and military power. Those states that have significant amounts of power within the international system are referred to as middle powers, regional powers, great powers, superpowers, or hyperpowers. Entities other than states can also acquire and wield power in international relations. Such entities can include multilateral international organizations, military alliance organizations (e.g. NATO), multinational corporations, non-governmental organizations, or other institutions such as the Roman Catholic Church, Wal-Mart[1], or the Hanseatic League. Power as a goal Primary usage of power as a goal in international relations belongs to political theorists, such as Niccolà ² Machiavelli and Hans Morgenthau. Especially among Classical Realist thinkers, power is an inherent goal of mankind and of states. Economic growth, military growth, cultural spread etc can all be considered as working towards the ultimate goal of international Power as influence. Political scientists principally use power in terms of an actors ability to exercise influence over other actors within the international system. This influence can be coercive, attractive, cooperative, or competitive. Mechanisms of influence can include the threat or use of force, economic interaction or pressure, diplomacy, and cultural exchange. Spheres, blocs, and alliances Under certain circumstances, states can organize a sphere of influence or a bloc within which they exercise predominant influence. Historical examples include the spheres of influence recognized under the Concert of Europe, or the recognition of spheres during the Cold War following the Yalta Conference. The Warsaw Pact, the Free World, and the Non-Aligned Movement were the blocs that arose out of the Cold War contest. Military alliances like NATO and the Warsaw Pact are another forum through which influence is exercised. However, Realist theory often attempts to stay away from the creation of powerful blocs/spheres that can create a hegemon within the region. British foreign policy, for example, has always sided against the hegemonic forces on the continent, i.e. Nazi Germany, Napoleonic France or Habsburg Austria. Power as security Power is also used when describing states or actors that have achieved military victories or security for their state in the international system. This general usage is most commonly found among the writings of historians or popular writers. For instance, a state that has achieved a string of combat victories in a military campaign against other states can be described as powerful. An actor that has succeeded in protecting its security, sovereignty, or strategic interests from repeated or significant challenge can also be described as powerful. Power as capability Power is the capacity to direct the decisions and actions of others. Power derives from strength and will. Strength comes from the transformation of resources into capabilities. Will infuses objectives with resolve. Strategy marshals capabilities and brings them to bear with precision. Statecraft seeks through strategy to magnify the mass, relevance, impact, and irresistibility of power. It guides the ways the state deploys and applies its power abroad. These ways embrace the arts of war, espionage, and diplomacy. The practitioners of these three arts are the paladins of statecraft. Charles W. Freeman, Jr. Power is also used to describe the resources and capabilities of a state. This definition is quantitative and is most often used by geopoliticians and the military. Capabilities are thought of in tangible terms-they are measurable, weighable, quantifiable assets. Thomas Hobbes spoke of power as present means to obtain some future apparent good. Hard Power can be treated as a potential and is not often enforced on the international stage. Chinese strategists have such a concept of national power that can be measured quantitatively using an index known as comprehensive national power. Soft versus hard power Some political scientists distinguish between two types of power: soft and hard. The former is attractive while the latter is coercive. Joseph Nye is the leading proponent and theorist of soft power. Instruments of soft power include debates on cultural values, dialogues on ideology, the attempt to influence through good example, and the appeal to commonly accepted human values. Means of exercising soft power include diplomacy, dissemination of information, analysis, propaganda, and cultural programming to achieve political ends. Hard power refers to coercive tactics: the threat or use of armed forces, economic pressure or sanctions, assassination and subterfuge, or other forms of intimidation. Hard power is generally associated to the stronger of nations, as the ability to change the domestic affairs of other nations through military threats. CORE CONCEPT Why is power important to international relations ? Undoubtedly power acts as a major theme within the study of international relations, yet as a concept it is highly contested and difficult if not impossible to define. The oxford concise dictionary of politics attempts to define power as the ability to make people (or things) do what they would not otherwise have done. However power can be seen in many different forms be it that of economic, political, military or psychological. Within the many different theories of international relations the concept of power features widely yet its interpretation and significance differs throughout. As there are so many theories within the study of international relations is impossible to focus on them all and so I have decided to predominantly look at the ideas within realism. In post war scholarship the starting point for most theorizing about international politics has been power and national interest, with power understood ultimately as a military capability and interest as an egotistic desire for power, security or wealth. The proposition that the nature of international politics is shaped by power relations is noted as a defining characteristic of realism. However this is not only a realist claim, neoliberals to see power as important along with Marxists, feminists and post modernists. Yet first by looking at the concept of power in a broad sense, free of persific theoretical judgement in order to get a preliminary understanding of the term itself. International politics clearly occurs between all states through which administrative transactions occur involving the use of power. It can therefore be argued that all international politics are in a sense power politics Within the contemporary international system the majority of nations collective domestic and external goals cannot be defended or achieved without influencing the behaviour of other states. Consequently goal attainment is dependent upon the reactions and actions of others. This is where the importance of power as a concept comes into the study of international politics because power includes the means by which all states influence the behaviour of others in order to protect and extend their own interests. This probability is able to exist because states pursue various interests and can agree or disagree on any one of them pursuing them individually. Categories of power In the modern geopolitical landscape, a number of terms are used to describe powers of various types, these include: Hyperpower coined to describe the post-Cold War United States or the British Empire shortly after the Napoleonic wars. Superpower Fox (1944) defined the Superpower as great power plus great mobility of power and identified 3 states, the United States, the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom. Great power in historical mentions, the term Great power refers to any nations that have strong political, cultural and economic influence over nations around it and across the world. (Examples: China, France, India, Russia, Germany, and the United Kingdom.) Middle power a subjective description of second-tier influential states that could not be described as Great powers. (Examples: Japan, South Korea, Canada, Australia, The Netherlands, and Israel.) The term Regional power is also used to describe a nation that exercises influence and power within a region. Being a regional power is not mutually exclusive with any of the above categories. The term Energy superpower describes a country that has immense influence or even direct control over much of the worlds energy supplies. Russia and Saudi Arabia are generally acknowledged as the worlds two current energy superpowers, given their abilities to globally influence or even directly control prices to certain countries. The term entertainment superpower or culture superpower describes a country in which has immense influence or even direct control over much of the worlds entertainment or has an immense large cultural influence on much of the world. Although this is debated on who meets such criteria, many agree that the United States, United Kingdom, and Japan are generally acknowledged as the entertainment and cultural superpowers, given their abilities to distribute their entertainment and cultural innovations worldwide. Categories of power (Diagramatic representation) C:Documents and SettingsDellMy DocumentsMy PicturesPowers_in_international_relations.png Map reflecting the categories of power in international relations.   Ã‚  countries most often considered to be Superpowersà  Ã‚ ¦Ã‚ ¼   Ã‚  countries most often considered to be Great powers   Ã‚  countries most often considered to be Regional power   Ã‚  countries most often considered to be Middle powers ELEMENTS OF POWER The elements of a countrys power can be roughly categorized as those that constitute: Its national core Its national infrastructure Its national economy Its military The core and infrastructure form the basis for economic and military power. The national core consists of a countrys technological sophistication , its transportation system and its information and communication capabilities. CONCLUSION Power is the foundation of diplomacy in a conflictual world. National power is the sum of a countrys assets that enhance its ability to get its way even when opposed by others with different interests and goals. Measuring power is especially difficult as the efforts to do so have not been very successful but it helps us to see many of the complexities of analyzing the characters of power . These characteristics include the facts that power is dynamic , both objective and subjective, relative, situational and multidimensional.

Giddens Theory of Social Practices | Analysis

Giddens Theory of Social Practices | Analysis The aim of this paper is to critically evaluate the rationale behind Giddens theory of social practices and offer in depth of complexity and its complex adaptive systems in relation to managing strategic discourse. Several views and ideas have been expressed by many authors and practitioners concerning complexity and strategy. Therefore the scope of the paper is limited to how strategy evolves in a complex adaptive system. In this context, complexity will be explained, highlight on core competencies and resource-based view of the firms; then debate on strategy while discussing the characteristics of strategic thinking and planning and those involved in it. The paper is concluded having critically analysed the kind of leadership style suited for managing diverse human behaviour and its surroundings during the strategic actions. Mitleton-Kelly (2002) linked social practices to a self-organisational context, whereby group of individuals suddenly congregate to perform a task, the group decides on what to do, why they should perform that task, who will be involved and how will it be done. So there is an interdependency and inter-connectivity among the entities involved (Kauffman, 1993). According to Wenger and Snyder (2000) social practices evolve from community of practice which shows how people interact with their surroundings and solving problems through human relationships. So Giddens (1979) opine that â€Å"social practices are situated activities† brings to bare the social interaction of human actions within a structure and the system. According to Cooper et al. (1992) the increasing competition, rise of global markets and growing economic integration has brought dramatic change in industrial developments and management. And these have increased uncertainty, greater conflict and even complexities running across all organisations. Citing example is conflicts between profit maximization within the industry an organisation operates and care for the environment. This is causing organisations to constantly redefine their mindsets (Senge, 1990) to radically rethink of how to gain competitive advantage in the dynamic business environment (McHardy, 1997). Mitleton-Kelly (2001, p. 3) viewed organisational complexity as: â€Å"being associated with the intricate inter-relationships of individuals, of individuals with artefacts (such as IT) and with ideas, and with effects of inter-actions within the organisation, as well as between institutions within a social ecosystem†. Holland (1975) who impelled Complex Adaptive System (CAS) viewed it as â€Å"non-linear systems whose behaviour is determined by the interaction of its adaptive parts†. The interaction is between the organisation and its environment (Sherif, 2006). Cilliers (2000) stated that the non-linearity of the interactions in a system is a precondition for complexity. According to Mitleton-Kelly (2001) the ideology on strategy and changes in management is due to the fact that organisations is observed as a complex evolving systems whereby the interacting agents changes with time (Cillier, 2000). Today, businesses faces more challenges because of the intricacy global network of organisations which propels managers to take pragmatics decisions (Pathak, et al., 2007). According to Choi and Hong (2002) the structural complexities of the supply chain interconnectedness and ability for an organisation to rapidly learn and get acclimatized to the dynamic environment to ensure long-term survival (Brown and Eisenhardt, 1998) has been the embryonic themes that managers usually encounter in decision making. Amaral and Uzzi (2007) commented on the complexity in the managerial context, stating that complex systems occurs when more interacting agents are impel to act on their limited resources and local information. The agents may be individuals, group, specialized knowledge, organisations, industries, etc, (Holland and Miller, 1991: Allen, 1997). Author such as Kanter (1989) acknowledged the significance for an organisation to endeavour to do more with less, stating that â€Å"the imperative to do more with less is a common management theme across a range of industries†. Thus becoming productive and efficient with fewer resources. According to Bovaird (2008) the complexity theory which demonstrates the concept of planning in an open system is abstractly embedded with elemental difficulties. The implementation of CAS oriented approach and behavioral adaptive system helps organization to improve their decision making that will increase the efficiency and the awareness of competition and as much as preparing for external uncertainties (Abell et al. 1999). Example of a company that have benefited from implementing the CAS principles into their operational activities include; Boeings move which reduced its risk of expensive tumble supply networks delays by redesigning of the 787 Dreamliner supply network. Equally, companies such as Nokia, quickly learn to be adaptive in their behaviour in ‘hyper-competitive environment. In the case of Nokia and Ericsson, a fire outbreak to their sole supplier (Philips) for particular chip interrupted the supply of chips to both manufactures. Whiles Ericsson suffered an estima ted loss of $2.34 billion, Nokia quickly connected with Philips to create an alternative supply options that will ensure regular supply of the chips to Nokia (Sheffi and Rice, 2005). Barney (1991) identified the economic and ‘hyper-competitive environment as drivers of resource-base viewed which requires strategic and self-management of the cost and scarcity of resources (Griffiths, 2004) so as to generate superior returns (Priem and Butler, 2001). So the hyper-competitive environment also influences the frequency and level of strategic activities (Eisenhardt and Santos, 2002). Mintzberg (1987) defined strategy in five terms: plan; ploy; pattern; position; and perspective. Similarly, Abraham (2005) viewed strategic thinking as identifying possible business models that results in customer value. According to Pryor et al. (1998) the traditional way of strategic planning was familiarize to quantitative analysis where the strategies were planned based on results or analysed data without strategically thinking of the implementers (low level employees) of the strategic plan. Mintzberg (1994) and Boar (2000) distinguish strategic planning or action as the progeny of strategic thinking. Thus, whereas the thinking involves synthesis encouraging intuitive, innovative and creative thinking at all levels of the organisation, the planning is concern with analysis establishing and formalising systems and procedures (Heracleous, 1998). This is shown in figure 1. Mintzberg (1994) and Boar (2000) concluded that good strategic planning can only be implemented after strategic thinking had occurred. Mitleton-Kelly (2001) express that the ideology on strategy and changes in management is due to the fact that organisations is observed as a complex evolving systems whereby the interacting agents changes with time (Cillier, 2000). Kauffman (1997) and Maturana (1997) argue that strategies should be designed as an adaptive move towards the changing business environment. However, adaptive organisations encounter conflicting constraints within their internal organisation an d the environment within which it interacts. This Kauffman refers to as ‘complexity catastrophe (Kauffman, 1993). Kauffman and Macready (1995) identified Information Technology (IT) and the growing of social network as the major constraints to adaptive system. Therefore, modelling of complexity requires the strategist and practitioners to model organisations especially how human and structural capitals interact with the use of IT systems as well as modelling of the environment to overcome the complexity catastrophe (Sanderson, 1998). Masaaki Imai, a leading Tokyo based management consultant argued that identifying an organisations resource-based view such as its resources and capabilities is critical in determining its strategic action (Imai, n.d). In support of this, Hitt et al. (2009) express that a firms chosen business strategy should be made to exploit its core competences relative to the anticipated opportunities in the external environment. According to Porter (1996) an organisation will survive in this dynamic business environment when it is able to differentiate its strategy by creating its core competency that gives the organisation a competitive advantage over its competitors. Porter re-emphasise that an organisation can boast of good strategy only when its difficult for its competitors to catch up/imitate what it does. He argued that a business model that does not offer an organisation a sustainable competitive advantage is not a good strategy since its competitors can offer the same product to the ma rket. Bonn (2001) suggested three core attributes as the prerequisite for the successful occurrence of strategic thinking. These include recognising the linkages and complexity of the relationships existing between an organisation and its environment in a holistic way, creativity by reviewing the old ideas and practices and merging it with new ideas and having a vision for the organisation. Nonetheless, a viable vision and mission of an organisation should be flexible so as to conform to an ever-changing business environment (Wilson, 1998). Besides the outcome of managing the firms tangible and intangible resources will be the firms strategic competitiveness (Hitt et al., 2009). The diagram illustrates the outcome of strategic actions. According to Abraham (2005) the strategy is all about winning and can only be achieved through strategic thinking and planning. Strategic processes have shifted from the processes of strategic learning by organizations (Crossan and Berdrow, 2003) to an increasing strategy as a social practice (Jarzabkowski, 2005). Similarly, Eisenhardt and Brown (1998) argue that modern strategy has shifted from the traditional way of building long-term defensible positions to a continuous adaptation and improvement into the business environment. Abraham (2005) pointed out that differentiation in terms of finding a technique/innovative way to obtain a sustainable competitive advantage (increasing customer value and profit) is one of the challenges of strategic thinking. However, Sanderson (1998) claim that in this modern era, the ability for an organisation to manage knowledge and the resultant changes in organisation is the main key to think of and obtain strategic advantage and become successfully competitive. On the other hand, the complex changes and continuous quest to gain competitive advantage (Abraham, 2005) has led to the growth of co-operation such as strategic alliances and joint venture to respond to the hostile and turbulent environment (Sanderson, 1998). In a keynote speech by the president and chief operating officer of Coca Cola Company Munich, Kent (2008) stated that the sustainable future of an organisation is not achievable without sustainable leaders and leadership. Moreover sustainable leadership will necessitate organisations to build strong culture of sustainability. Leadership plays a major role in affecting decision processes (Chung and McLarney, 1999) since members within a structure mostly depends on powerful leaders to initiate decisions (Schneider and Shrivastava, 1988). According to Hambrick and Mason (1984) strategy is usually made and executed at the upper hierrarchial levels. Thus the most strategists within an organization is the Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) and their top management teams and the board of directors of which Whittington (2006) classified them as practitioners. Simultaneously, their profession which includes writing, presenting, communicating, meetings, consulting, etc also requires certain practices such as thinking, analyzing and acting (Angwin et al., 2009). However, Macus (2008) perceive the boards as a strategic resource of an organization that influences its performance. Figure 3 illustrates strategic as practice approach. Boar (2000) stated that a strategist thinks about many issues in multiple dimensions at many levels of abstraction and detail over time (past, present and future) whiles the planning or action processes of the strategy requires cost and time of which all strategists must take that into consideration (Linn, 2008). So the role of strategists is to instill a sense of vision that the staffs of the organisation will work towards (Hamal and Prahalad, 1993) and not to specify every move in advance. According to Simpson (1998) strategy is centered towards the future, hence an effective and efficient strategists is to understand the history of the organisation, its leadership and the industry it operates, then study the successful and unsuccessful initiative the organisation has engaged over the past 5-10 years as well as to enable plan for the future years. In the situation whereby different entities engage in an interaction to undertake a project, a complex inter-relationship is created (Mitleton-Kelly 2001). In this case, a consultant can be hired to help both entities in strategising the planning of the project in order to reap mutual benefit ( ). Also the transfer of knowledge and information to accomplish any task is determine by the level of connectedness and relationship within the actors (Kauffman, 1993). However, Mitzberg (1994 ) criticize the proponents of strategic planning stating that it is deceptive for strategists who are detached from the business operations to f orecast occurrences for an organisation and its industry of operation and that formalising procedures to produce strategy is also a fallacy instead of operationalising on already existing strategies. Equally Collins and Parcas (1994) argue it is a myth that â€Å"successful companies make their best moves by brilliant and complex strategic planning†. Instead the moves made by visionary companies is through series of experiments, trials and error and then take opportunity on those that work perfectly for them. In view of this, Mitleton-Kelly (2001) also stated that trying different strategies exposes organisations to risk. Wenger and Snyder (2000) suggested setting up of â€Å"communities of practice† as one of the best structures for developing strategic thinking. This structure creates thinking environment which involves experienced managers and employees from different sectors and geographical areas to share their skill, knowledge and experiences to develop strategies or business models that influences the future of the company considering the three timing dimensions- past, present and future (Boar, 2000). This structure is similar to the multi-disciplinary project team. Bonn (2001) identified strategic forum as another structures for developing strategic thinking. She argued that this proactive approach should involve successful managers with a proven track record in their own disciplines to focus on areas that will benefit the long-term health of the organisation. According to Kennedy (2005) the diverse cultural values of employees makes managers grapple with complex issues and systems which requires many intangible aspects as tangible ones. Mantere and Whittington (2007) stated that understanding human behavior in a system is really complex. MacGregor‘s (1960) classical division in management theories distinguishes human beings into Theory X and Y. The former are the individuals who are self-interested, work-avoiding and passive whiles the later refers to those who are responsible, communitarian and willing to learn. McGregor (1960) re-emphasize that strategic action will successfully be implemented only when the managers are able to determine the behaviours of the subordinates, the value system and their confidence in the subordinate (Tannenbaum and Schmidt, 1958) and influence them to achieve positive result. Argyris (1956) argue that subordinates who are immature (Theory X) requires an autocratic leadership style whereas the matured ones (Theory Y) require a democratic leadership style. Morison (1967) on the other hand re-emphasized that organisation whose management flexibly gives its staff lot of latitude to plan strategically are better-off than organisations whose managers are autocratic in making decisions. In view of this, Fiedlers (1967) contingency model suggest that the ability of the managers is to carefully assess the situation and choose a suitable dominant style to improve their leadership role in revitalizing the vision of the organization. However, Calder et al. (1977) argued that despite complexity involves managing human being; the existence of leadership is only a perception. Simpson (1998) identified communication, performance measures, reward systems and training programs as the main driving force that influences strategic actions. Effective communication through knowledge and information sharing in an organisation will enable the strategy to be acted upon in the appropriate direction. Hopkins and Hopkins (2002) stated that interactions among group of people simultaneously influences their group actions and is observed as the key predictor of group performance (Kanki et al., 1991). Tziner and Vardi (1983) pointed out â€Å"higher quality of problem solving, greater productivity and efficiency, better achievement and greater group satisfaction† as the benefits of smooth interactions among members of a group. However, Ziegler et al. (2000) argues that the effectiveness of group interaction can be negatively affected (Steiner, 1976) in the situation whereby a single person is dominating a group interaction to solve complex task. Simpson (1998) conti nue to express that measuring the performance of the executed plan will assist the organisation to spotlight on the most important whiles improving upon the performances. Rewards and compensation on the other hand motivates the staffs to make the strategic plan a reality by achieving positive results. Moreover the organisation should organise training programs to psychologically work on the staffs attitudes and skills whiles executing the strategic plans. Furthermore, Stasser et al. (1989) made an interesting comment that most of the best contribution and supports to solutions or complex task is normally generated from ad hoc informal board interactions which occurs outside committee or board meetings among the directors. Ruppert (2009) also emphasise that informal discussion among board members, top management and stakeholders, occurs at the golf course, spending sometime at the beach, pub or restaurant when drinking beer. According to Coutts et al. (2005) the aforementioned places by Ruppert (2009) leads to social development and contributes to team performance within an organisation. DAvani and MacMillan (1990) suggest that managers should not dwell much on previous success because of the dynamic business environment as it is easy for such managers to fall prey to what Duhaime and Schwenk (1985) term as â€Å"illusion of control†. In addition Ansoff (1984) argue that general managers who perform satisfactorily and succeed in an environment does not give them the assurance of succeeding on a different environment where there is lower or higher level of business turbulence (cited in Mantere and Whittington, 2007). According to Linn (2008) one of the concepts that organisations must consider during strategic planning processes is the SWOT analysis. This gives detailed account of the organisation strengths and weaknesses as well as the opportunities and threats of the competitive environment. Mantere and Whittington (2007) claim that the SWOT analysis is one of the most popular strategic tool that has been adopted as business policy to flexibly develop and sha pe strategists and practitioners. The outcome of strategic actions from interacting with the environmental forces provides the platform for organisational learning when the experiences of these outcomes is then feed back into the scanning and interpretation processes (Chung and McLarney, 1999). In support of this, Ashby (1969) re-emphasise that an organisation can survive in a complex system by exploring its space of possibilities thus continuously scanning the landscape and encouraging alternative strategies. On the other hand, the feedback helps in identifying ones strength and specifity of asset (Sherif, 2006). Furthermore, Prigogine and stengers (1985) claim that feedback from implemented strategic plans either being positive or negative helps to create stability in complex system through a precise prediction of the agents behaviour and planning accordingly (cited in Mtleton-Kelly, 2001). Strategic processes have some shortcomings (Tavakoli and Lawton, 2005). The authors argue that normally the knowledge and experience of the front line employees are not incorporated into the information gathered during the strategic thinking process. On the other hand, the authors argue that the absence of the senior management may also mismatch the mission of the organisation. Even though strategic planning usually occurs at the top of organizations (Christensen et al., 1982), Bourgeois and Brodwins (1984) claim that organizations perform better when strategic thinking and planning is delegated downwards so as to benefit from the information gathered at frontline. Moreover, Hambrick (1987) argue that strategic success is assured when the entire top management team share common values and posses qualities that robustly fits into evolving competitive environment. To conclude strategy is recognized as an organizational phenomenon which is significant for organizational performance and growth. Strategic practices never ends so long as there continue to be complex evolving system hence understanding the nature of complex system is important. Therefore adapting to such systems which has been challenged by practitioners requires good leadership that will promote knowledge sharing and learning in engaging into strategic thinking and planning. 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(1998) New approaches to strategy: new ways of thinking for the millennium, Management Decision, Vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 9-13. Schneider, S.C. and Shrivastava, P. (1988) Basic assu Rationalism in Architecture: 18th and 20th Century Rationalism in Architecture: 18th and 20th Century Introduction Rationalism began as a 17th century ideology that led to the Enlightenment, a period in history where reason was the primary instrument for justifying and understanding the hows and whys of things and circumstances. The Enlightenment was a time where concrete evidence through scientific research flourished and Rationalism influenced all field of endeavors and even simple daily tasks.[1] In layman terms, to be rational is to be understandable, measurable or definite. Using this as premise, Rationalism in architecture therefore pertains to accuracy in designing and building the height, breadth or depth of a structure. Architectural Rationalism was a solid evidence of the Enlightenment influence in the field of architecture. It continues to persist in the modern world as an independent art movement though much of the modern Rationalist designs have little resemblance to Enlightenment architecture. Henceforth, this essay attempts to contextualize Rationalism by differentiating its two variants: 18th century Rationalism and the recent 20th century development. The similarities and differences of their respective designs and, if possible, functions are noted to give us an idea on how Rationalism has evolved as an architectural ideology. The essay also includes discussions on sub-movements, their pioneers and their trademarks. 18th Century Rationalism The Enlightenment Architectural Rationalism was focused on being symmetrical, having accurate measurements of classic shapes, and functionality. It clearly reflected the spirit of the times where science, mathematics and logic were at the peak of their influence. Neoclassicism was a widespread movement under the Rationalist wing. It was established in reaction to the flamboyant and seemingly excessive Baroque and Rococo styles. During the neoclassicist boom, many artworks and structural designs of the classical Graeco-Roman era were recalled together with the architectural works of Italian Andrea Palladio.[2] The movement was named neoclassical, as opposed to pure classicism, as not every classical design was applied therein. Neoclassicists only selected from the wide array of designs those feasible to society. Neoclassicist designs were characterized as follows: symmetry, columns that functioned as support, minimalistic design composed of basic geometric shapes, and an overlaid triangular gable commonly known as pediment. The symmetry, functionality, and geometrical aspects of the neoclassicist movement were defining characteristics of the Rationalist ideology.[3] The Pediment[4] A Column[5] Existing in the 16th century towards the culmination of the Renaissance period, Andrea Palladio was the first known architect to revive and apply the classical designs of Graeco-Roman society in many villas, palaces and basilicas. His architecture became an essential foundation of Enlightenment Architecture. As a dedicated follower of Vitruvius and his timeless principle of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, Palladio carefully ensured that his structural designs were durable, useful, and attractive as stipulated by Vitruvius in his ten-volume masterpiece De Architectura. Palladio was also particular about proportions and putting a purpose on every structural component.[6] For instance, a portico or terrace must be utilized in such a way that the surrounding scenery was seen in its full glory. He wanted geographical attributes of the estate to match with the houses structural design. The palazzos, villas and basilicas he designed displayed the intermingling values of beauty and the social environment and position of their respective owners. An urban palazzo was different from a provincial palazzo; likewise, an agricultural villa was different from a residential villa. Palladio designed structures according to their context.[7] Palladio had contributed several design innovations in public buildings and churches. Most Palladian works were made of affordable materials, usually stucco, traditionally made with lime, sand and water, to cover and bind bricks. His urban structures for prestigious Venetian owners had high classical porticos with pediments that extended as far as the second floor and were supported by giant colonnades. These porticos were raised above ground level and on the same level as the rest of the ground floor. This raised floor called piano nobile, was reused in later variations of neoclassical architecture. Palazzo Chiericati in the city of Vicenza was a fine example of this urban structure.[8] Palazzo Chiericati (1550-1557)[9] Rural villas were rather different. Instead of the piano nobile, there was an elevated podium bordered by lower service wings, connected with an elegant curving flight of stairs. The owner maintained residence at the elevated portion. Villa Foscari (also La Malcontenta) was among the mid-16th century designs of Palladio that employed this renowned building format. Villa Foscari (1559)[10] The 1570 publishing of Palladios work Quattro Libri dellArchitettura (The Four Books of Architecture), stretched his influence far beyond his home country Italy. Palladios architectural drawings and discussions contained in the book set the stage for neoclassicist expansion in the key European countries of France, Britain, Ireland, Spain and Germany.[11] Even more remarkable was his influence in colonial and post-colonial America, where his designs were replicated in the houses of well-known families, state buildings and even the private abode of Thomas Jefferson, the freedom President.[12] Along with Palladios treatise, the unearthing and discovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum, Roman towns destroyed by volcanic eruption during the classical period, was thought to inspire the interior designs of 18th century European houses and edifices.[13] The Ruins of Pompeii[14] Interior View of a Herculaneum House[15] In Europe, neoclassicist architecture developed at different paces. Some sources estimated that the movement reached its peak in France with Étienne-Louis Boullà ©e and Claude Nicolas Ledoux. The two architects followed principles of rationality into their Graeco-Roman inspired designs. Boullà ©e was known for fusing geometry with the standard classics. This original neoclassical deviation might have been influenced by his work as an educator and philosopher at École Nationale Des Ponts et Chaussà ©es. Like most neoclassicists, his designs were minimalistic, devoid of ornamentation, bold enough to repeat certain structural components, especially if they were functional (i.e. columns), and sought to emphasize the purpose of the structure and its parts. Boullà ©e also proposed a cenotaph, an approximately 500-foot sphere rooted on a round foundation, for the English scientist Isaac Newton. This was not feasible to build but as a professional engraving, the style gained prom inence. Boullà ©es works were later revived by 20th century Rationalists and more popularly by renowned Modernist architect, Aldo Rossi. Contemporary architects found his designs unique and very inventive although some would consider them illusions of grandeur. The Hà ´tel Alexandre in Paris, known for its flanking courtyard doors and Corinthian columns, was one of Boullà ©es surviving works.[16] Cenotaph for Newton (1784)[17] Hà ´tel Alexandre (1763-66)[18] Like his compatriot, Ledoux was very idealistic in his architecture, always wanting to build with a purpose. For this he and Boullà ©e were branded Utopians.'[19] Ledoux designed many theatres, hotels, residential homes, and buildings, supplied with rotundas, columns and domes from the Graeco-Roman period. His known architectural innovation was the architectonic order, best exhibited through his design on the Royal Saltworks at Arc-et-Senans. He was appointed Royal Architect for the express purpose of building a structural design for efficiently extracting salt. The Royal Saltworks became a significant example of 18th century Architectural Rationalism for its extensive use of geometry and logical arrangement of shapes to facilitate the extraction and transportation processes. Another design was drawn after the first was disapproved.[20] Facade of the Royal Saltworks, France[21] Aerial View of Ledoux Second Design (1804)[22] There were many other prominent figures under the neoclassical movement but few were as Utopian as the works of Boullà ©e and Ledoux. French writer-teacher-architect Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand influenced several German Rationalists by adding principles of economy and convenience to the existing architectural Utopia.[23] The later renditions of neoclassicism in Britain, America, and Spain disregarded the attachment to symmetry and geometry that Palladio himself and the French neoclassicists were very particular. However, they did retain much of the functionality aspect. For example, neo-Palladian British architects William Kent and Indigo Jones invented the flanking wings to give more space in the house interior.[24] This concern for utilizing space was still an archetype of 18th century Rationalism. 20th Century Rationalism 20th century Rationalist architecture was interchangeably called Neo-Rationalist. Although the designs were different from 18th century rationalism, neo-Rationalists continued to practice important principles of Rationalist Architecture. The simplistic form and ornamentation was still retained; the functionality aspect became known as theme. In fact, as many historians claimed, neo-Rationalism was an evolution of 18th century Enlightenment Architecture.[25] The need to justify architectural works remained strong as it had then. The Enlightenment brought about the Industrial Revolution around 18th-19th centuries. The effects lasted and were carried over to the 20th century, where industrialization became a fad. Economic advancement was no longer associated with brick and wood but with new elements like steel, iron and glass. As industrialization reached its peak in the 20th century, the growing importance of machinery led to the development of an industrial architecture, composed of t hose new elements.[26] Modernism was the dominant rationalist movement of the 1900s. It basically aimed to employ new materials suited to the spirit of industrialization and free architects from the bondage of styles, which curtailed individual touches. The works of early Modernists Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany and Frenchman Le Corbusier were mostly products of socio-political revolutions. Following World War I, the German Modernist ventured into new structures that meet social needs.'[27] The Bauhaus design school resulted from this venture. Bauhaus became identified as the International Style, adopted by many Modern structural designs in various countries.[28] The following are famous examples of Bauhaus architecture: The UN New York Base by Le Corbusier[29] The Gropius Residence in Lincoln[30] The International Style was characterized by rational principles of minimalism and functional design and structure. Neoclassical pediments, columns and flanking wings were replaced by rectangular shapes of concrete cement, steel, and other new elements. There were hardly traces of particular cultures or social context and a neutral architecture that was universally applicable prevailed.[31] Modernists like Frank Lloyd Wright tried to balance nature and structural designs.[32] Later, Postmodernist movements emerged to deconstruct the universality of Bauhaus and infuse local identities into modern architecture so it can connect with peoples sentiments.[33] Aldo Rossi, Italian theorist-architect-designer-artist, was among the celebrated Postmodernists. His valuable contribution to urban architecture was building contemporary structures without neglecting the historical value of the city or site where it would be built. He stressed the social significance of monuments and cemeteries and also advocated that structures be strong enough for succeeding generations to witness.[34] San Cataldo Cemetery expanded by Rossi (1971)[35] Bonnefanten Museum, Maastricht by Rossi (1990-1994)[36] Conclusion 18th and 20th century Architectural Rationalists are linked by the ancient principles of utilitas, firmitas, venustas. Their respective movements were generally non-ornamental and useful in structure, design and theme. In the area of symmetry, the use of geometrical shapes, and projecting cultural and individual sentiments, the two Rationalist regimes differ. 18th century Rationalists were unified in advocating truth and beauty in architecture while neo-Rationalists had individual contradictions.[37] Nevertheless, both strands justified Architectures major roles in society and in peoples lives. Sources [1] Hackett Lewis. (1992) The age if enlightenment, History World International at http://history-world.org/age_of_enlightenment.htm [2] Steve Fallon Nicola Williams. (2008) Paris: city guide, United Kingdom, Lonely Planet Publications, p. 48. [4] University of Pittsburgh at http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/menuglossary/pediment.htm [5] Old House Web at http://www.oldhouseweb.com/architecture-and-design/greek-revival-1820-1850.shtml [6] Bernd Evers, Christof Thoenes Kunstbibliothek. (2003) Architectural theory: from the renaissance to the present, Germany, TASCHEN pp. 6-7. [7] Sam Smiles Stephanie Moser. (2005) Envisioning the past: archaeology and the image, Maine, Blackwell Publishing pp. 98-114. [8] Douglas Lewis, Andrea Palladio International Exhibitions Foundation. (1981) The drawings of Andrea Palladio, Texas, The Foundation, pp. 158-163. [9] Essential Architecture at http://www.essential-architecture.com/STYLE/STY-E14.htm [11] Caroline Clifton-Mogg. (1991) The neoclassical source book, New York, Rizzoli, pp. 88-175. [12] David Watkin. (2005) A history of western architecture, London, Laurence King pp. 114-513. [13] H. Keethe Beebe. (1975) Domestic Architecture and the New Testament, The Biblical Archaeologists, volume 38, number 3/4, pp. 89-104. [14] Virtual Tourist at http://cache.virtualtourist.com/1898061-Pompeii-Pompeii.jpg [16] Helen Rosenau. (1976) Boullà ©e visionary architecture, New York, Harmony Books pp. 1-27. [19] Barry Bergdoll. (2000) European architecture, 1750-1890, New York, Oxford University Press p. 97. [20] Elizabeth Basye Gilmore Holt. (1966) From the classicists to the impressionists: art and architecture in the nineteenth century, Connecticut, Yale University Press pp. 227-311. [21] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization at http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/203 [23] Joy Monice Malnar Frank Vodvarka. (2004) Sensor design, Minneapolis, The University of Minnesota Press p. 8. [24] Inigo Jones, William Kent. (1727) The designs of Inigo Jones: consisting of plans and elevations for publick, England, W. Kent pp. 1-73. [25] Christopher Crouch. (2000) Modernism in Art Design and Architecture, New York, St. Martins Press pp. 1-10. [26] Industrial architecture, EncyclopÃÆ' ¦dia Britannica Online at http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/286910/industrial-architecture [27] Richard J. Evans. (2003) The coming of the third reich, New York, The Penguin Press, pp. 122-123. [28] Henry Russell Hitchcock Philip Johnson. (1997)The International Style, New York, W. W. Norton Company, pp. 1-5. [29] International Style at http://architecture.about.com/od/20thcenturytrends/ig/Modern-Architecture/International-Style.htm [30] The Digital Archive of American Architecture at http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/fnart/fa267/gropius.html [31] Hazel Conway Rowan Roenisch. (1994) Understanding architecture: an introduction to architecture and architectural history, London, Routledge pp. 22-24. [32] Kathleen Karlsen. Saving Civilization Through Architecture Rationalism and the International Style, at http://ezinearticles.com/?Saving-Civilization-Through-ArchitectureRationalism-and-the-International-Styleid=888138 [33] Hazel Conway Rowan Roenisch. (1994) Understanding architecture: an introduction to architecture and architectural history, London, Routledge pp. 22. [34] Terry Kirk. (2005) The architecture of modern Italy, volume 2: visions of utopia 1900-present, New York, Princeton University Press pp. 208-214. [35] Cornell University Blog at http://blogs.cornell.edu/tim/2008/09/21/cities-sites/ [36] Brian Rose at http://www.brianrose.com/portfolio/bonnefanten/bonnefan.htm [37] Sarah Williams Goldhagen. Ultraviolet: Alvar Aaltos embodied Rationalism, Harvard Design Magazine at http://www.sarahwilliamsgoldhagen.com/articles/Ultraviolet.pdf

Cell Phones And Driving: Dangers Involved with Cell Phone Use While Dr

Most people don’t abide by the rules and regulations of the road. Most people don’t even know that they are breaking the law because they do it so often. Talking on the cell phone and driving has become a very popular thing these days. Technology is coming out with the newest phones that can do everything for you and people are attracted to that. There are people that don’t have hands free and drive their car with only one hand, people that text and totally take their eye off the road and type conversations to each other. Bluetooth is another technological breakthrough where you wear an ear piece and can receive phone calls by one touch of a button on the ear piece. This alone takes our attention off the road and into the cell phone. This is ridiculous and everyone has these gadgets and they drive their car day in and day out. Whether it be talking using your hands, talking by text or talking hands free; are all dangerous. It is likely that everyone has ta lked on the cell phone while operating a motor vehicle. I believe that this is a very bad issue that we have going on and not much enforcement is being made. I have five different sources that all say that driving and talking on the phone is dangerous, even fatal. The Governor Highway Safety Association(GHSA), presents us with cell phone driving laws and has made a chart showing the states that have cracked down the cell phone usage with laws. They say that several states restrict cell phone use while driving. This shows us that this is a problem and that states are making laws to control drivers to obey the rules and pay attention on the road. 29 states have collect crash data from cell phone use and driving. 9 states have preemption laws. 5 states have handh... ...elf, or another person due to a non important conversation that could wait depending on the drive. Just pull over and talk. Remember, you have voicemail for a reason. Works Cited â€Å"Cell Phone Driving Laws† by Governor Highway Safety Association, 30, March 2008. http://www.ghsa.org/html/stateinfo/laws/cellphone_laws.html Insurance Information institute, â€Å"Cell Phone and Driving† April 2008. http://www.iii.org/media/hottopics/insurance/cellphones/ Live Science, â€Å"Drivers on Cell Phones Kill thousands, snarl traffic† 01, February 2005, http://www.livescience.com/technology/050201_cell_danger.html Cnet, â€Å"Cell phones as dangerous as drunk driving,† 01, July 2006. http://www.news.com/8301-10784_3-6090342-7.html ABC News, Why Cell Phones and Driving Don't Mix, 29, June 2005. http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/DyeHard/story?id=889064&page=1

Multiple Personality Disorder Essay examples -- Health, Mental Disorde

Multiple Personality Disorder Mental disorders have baffled physicians, psychiatrists and the general public since the beginning of time. One particular disorder called Dissociative Identity Disorder, also known as Multiple Personality Disorder, has caused controversy between those who believe it is real and those who think it is purely part of an individual’s imagination. For those who believe strongly in its existence, it poses very real consequences and hardships. Dissociative Identity Disorder has many causes, symptoms, and treatments; unfortunately, those who don’t take it seriously use it as a scapegoat for others undiagnosed problems. Many people may wonder what specifically defines Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID). This disorder is a mental illness that involves the sufferer experiencing two or more clear identities or personalities, also called alters, each of which has their own way of seeing and connecting themselves to the world (1). This disorder was formally known as Multiple Personality Disorder (MPD), and is frequently called split personality disorder (1). The actions of victims with DID are determined by the personality that is dominant at a specific time (7). â€Å"In the category of Dissociative Disorder there are four main disorders: depersonalization, derelization, dissociative fugue and dissociative identity disorder (8). Furthermore, â€Å"DID is a severe form of dissociation, a mental process, which produces a lack of connection in a person's thoughts, memories, feelings, actions, or sense of identity† (www.webmd.com). Having a thorough understanding of the meaning of DID is exceedin gly significant for the doctors that diagnose and treat patients. Several theories attempt to explain the causes behind D... ...inations or delusions, not multiple personalities (7). Without proper diagnosis the individual could experience additional problems. Despite the fact that DID is not a new medical development there is still ongoing controversy about its existence. The debate began during 1980s, it is believed that the sex abuse panic and the satanic abuse caused DID or MPD. Stories of people claiming to have DID became bizarre and the number of people claiming to have DID rose significantly. Some would argue that DID is a real disorder with real victims, while others would report it as being a second Salem witch hunt. Those who believe it is real argue that those who suffer it have suffered childhood trauma which is now affecting them. Others argue that if it is fictitious then the victims are displaying histrionic personality disorder, or the need for attention or approval.

Epic Characteristics of Paradise Lost Essay -- essays papers

Epic Characteristics of Paradise Lost Paradise Lost is one of the finest examples of epic tradition in all of literature. In composing this work, John Milton was, for the most part, following in the manner of epic poets of past centuries. By knowing the background of epic characteristics and conventions, it is easy to trace their presence in Book I of Paradise Lost. One of the biggest questions that a reader must face is that of the hero; exactly who is the epic hero in the poem? While Satan may not be the "hero" of Paradise Lost, Milton quickly establishes him as its main character, and as the most complex and detailed of Milton's descriptions. Satan is given many traditional attributes as an epic hero. Although he may not be the classical hero, he does defeat the creatures that God had created. This is why I feel that Milton meant Satan to be the hero of Paradise Lost. Another three characteristics of the epic are hardly items of debate, as was the hero. The setting of the poem is indeed vast in scope. It ranged from Heaven to Hell and to the Earth. The action of the story also consisted of deeds of great valor that required superhuman courage. Although biblically, we may not consider Satan to have courage, we know that he must have shown it while fighting the war in heaven against God. According to the dictionary, courage is "that quality of mind which shows itself in facing danger without fear or shrinking." Satan most certainly may be said to fit this description. There were also supernatural forces at work throughout the poem, such as gods, angels, and demons. In addition to these four epic characteristics, Milton also employees the so-called epic conventions in his poem. Milton definitely begins b... ...the hive†¦" (lines768+). These similes are Milton's way of helping us to better relate the story to common things in our lives. In spite of some alterations and modifications, we can clearly see how Milton used the classical epic characteristics and conventions in his writing. It was by employing these methods in to an already well known story that Milton created a masterpiece. Francis C. Blessington seems to sum it up the best. "Milton built his epic out of those of Homer and Virgil, like a cathedral erected out of the ruins of pagan temples whose remains can still me seen" (xiii). Bibliography: Works Cited Blessington, Francis C. Paradise Lost and the Classical Epic. Boston: Routledge, 1979. Milton, John. "Paradise Lost." The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Ed. M. H. Adams. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1993. 1475-1495.

Social Media Use

Abstract The purpose of this study is to actually look at the use of the social media (i. e Facebook, Twitter, Whatsapp,) in RSUST and the academic performance of the students. In this research a qualitative research method is used. 3 researched questions were asked 1. How common is the use of social media (i. e Facebook, BBM[BlackBerry Messenger], Whatsapp, Twitter) among RSUST students. 2. How often do these students spend using the social media? 3. How has it affected the academic performance of those who use the social media and those who don't?Introduction There has been a debate about the use of social media (e. g. , Facebook,Twitter,) by high school and college students, and the possible effect of those tools on students’ academic performance (Connolly, 2011; Hargitai, & Hsieh, 2010; Karpinski, & Duberstein, 2009). The main issue of this debate is whether the growing use of social media by high school and/or university students actually improves or worsens a studentâ₠¬â„¢s academic performance.The continued growth in the usage of the social media by students as early as the elementary school level (Anderson, & Rainie, 2012; Lenhart, 2009), In fact, the average time spent with screen media among 8- to 18-year-olds is more than twice the average amount of time spent in school each year (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2010; National Center for Education Statistics, 2007–2008). This issue has brought about concerns particularly for the areas of education (e. g. the identification and use of compatible teaching methods and the design of non-classroom educational assignments); communications (e. g. , the identification of appropriate channels on how to exchange educational information among individuals) (Chen, & Bryer, 2012; Anderson, & Rainie, 2012). Over the past 10 years, the media environment that children grow up in has changed dramatically, and the amount of time they spend consuming media has exploded. Students have been engulfed with— and possibly transformed by— reality TV, smartphones, iPads, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube.

Comparing Public School and Home School

If we are talking about schools, it seems like Public School and Home School don't sound so strange for us. Both of them are kind of schools which provide some benefits. They are all good schools. Although those schools are same good, as selective parents, you are supposed to be able to decide which school you should choose for your kids as a place where they continue their education. In deciding which school you will choose for your kids, you can consider the benefits your kids and your family will get from the school, the output you want your kids get after school, and many other things you should consider further.Truely, both Public School and Home School are means of education which help kids to achieve the goal of education, but those schools, Public School and Home School, have differences† (Pomadi,2007). First difference between Public School and Home School is about a question, † Who are in charge here? â€Å". In every school, including Public School and Home Sc hool, there are some people who are in charge of their students success in achieving education's aims. Who are the man in charge of Public School and Home School? In Public School, there are teachers, headmaster, and school staffs.They are people who are in charge of their students success in Public School. In the other side, people who are in charge of students success in Home School are not teachers, headmaster, or other staffs, but they are parents. In Home School, parents are the ones who are responsible for their kids success. Parents have important role in Home School, Just like teachers role in Public School. Second, if we are talking about differences between Public School and Home School, schedule will be one aspect that is quite different in Public School and Home School.The schedule in Home School is more flexible than schedule in Public School. In Home School, students (kids) can start their study whenever they want, for example, they can start to study at 8 a. m, 9 a. m , or whenever they are ready. They do not need to be afraid of being late because in Home School there is no specified time to start study (school). It is quite different from Public School where students have to be ready to study when the school bell rings at 7 a. m.Because of that, students of Public School have to come earlier to the school. It means that before 7 a. m they have to be ready in the school. In this case, if they come late, they will be punished by their teacher ecause 7 a. m is specified time where students have to be ready to study in Public School. In Public School, the schedule of subjects from Monday to Saturday change everyday. The schedule itself has been set by the school. Students have to obey and follow the schedule, and study the subjects based on the schedule given by the school.For example, on Monday they have Mathematic (2Ãâ€"45 minutes), Biology (2Ãâ€"45 minutes), English (2Ãâ€"45 minutes), and Civics (2Ãâ€"45 minutes) as their subjects, but on Tu esday they will have different subjects such as: Indonesian Language (2Ãâ€"45 inutes), Art (2Ãâ€"45 minutes), Geography (2Ãâ€"45 minutes), and Physics (2Ãâ€"45 minutes) as their subjects, and other different subjects in every different days. It is different from what we will find in Home School. If the student in Home school want to study English and Social Science for example, he/she will study those subjects that day.They will spend their time that day only to study those two subjects. How long he/she studies those subjects is not a big problem. Whether he/she will study English tor about 3 hours that day, or spend 2 hours to study about Social Science is up to him/ her. If the following day he/she still wants to study those subjects and he/she also wants to learn Mathematic as their additional subject that day, then he/she will get them again (English and Social Science), and learns Mathematic after those subjects finished. In Home School, this way is possible to do, but in P ublic School we cannot apply such way.So, that's why it is said that â€Å"the schedule in Home school is flexible† (Ensiklopedia,2011). Third, it is about uniform. In Public School, it is a must for the students to wear school uniform. If it is Elementary School, they wear white and red uniform. If it is Junior High School, they wear white and blue uniform. If it is Senior High School, they wear white and grey uniform. Their uniforms are usually two-piece; white shirt which is combined with skirt (for girls), or trousers (for boys), and sometimes in some Public Schools the uniforms are completed with tie.On the contrary, there is no certain rule for the students to wear uniform in Home School. There, they can wear shirt, T-shirt, skirt, trousers, or even Jeans are also permitted. They can wear everything they want as long as they feel comfortable wearing them when they are studying. Fourth, in Public School we know that one class is a big class that contains for about 30 to 40 students whereas the teacher who will conduct teaching and learning process in that class is only one in every subject. The opposite, there will only a teacher and a student who do teaching and learning process in Home School.Hence, the attention that the teacher can share to 30-40 students is really different from the attention that a teacher can give only for a student. Of course in Home School, a student will get 100% attention from his/her teacher, but in Public School teacher will try to share his/her attention to all his/her tudents as fair as he/she can. So, in this case, in Public School and Home School, the attention that the students can get from the teacher will totally different. Fifth is about curriculum. In Public School we cannot choose curriculum by ourselves. We just follow the curriculum which is used in that school.We also cannot choose subjects as we wish, because all subjects have been set by the school. This is different from Home School. In Home School we c an choose curriculum we want. We also can choose the subjects we want to learn and master them well. The subjects re usually adapted to the student needs. So, if we like to study Mathematic, and we want to master that subject than Science for example, we will spend more times to study that subject. If it is needed, we will reduce Science time or other subjects times, and use that times to learn more about Mathematic.The last is about some activities like flag ceremoney, Physical Education, and extra curricular. In Public School, we know that every Monday, all students, teachers, headmaster, and other school staffs hold flag ceremoney. It is a common ceremoney which is held by every Public School. Then, if we are talking about Physical Education in Public School, we will know that once in a week every students there have Physical Education on their schedule. Students learn to do some sports accompanied by their Physical Education teacher.One more thing is about extra curricular. We c an find such activitiy only in Public School. Usually, it is a must for every student to Join minimum 1 extra curricular that they are interested in. There are various kinds of extra curricular that students can choose in Public School, such as: football, dancing, badminton, music, as e all k tb , drawing, tennis, and so on. In Home School, however, we cannot tind such activities. There is no flag ceremoney in Home School every Monday, no Physical Education, and also no extra curricular.Thus, from the long explanation above, now we know that although Public School and Home School have the same function which is as means of education that can be used to help students to achieve education's aims, those schools still have some differences (Pomadi). Those differences can be seen from who take the responsible for the school, schedule system, uniform, umber of teacher and student in a class, curriculum, and the last is about some activities such as: flag ceremoney, Physical Education, and extra curricular.However, although those schools are different, they are still good schools which can create a well educated person who has high intelligentsia and civilized. Furthermore, after knowing the differences from those schools, we will be able to decide which one will be the best place that we will choose as a place for our kids to continue their education, because from those differences above, we will know some advantages and disadvantages of choosing one of those schools.